The Eightfold Path  

 500 BC

BUDDHA, THE WORD

 
                          THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS
 
   THUS has it been said by the Buddha, the Enlightened One: It is
 through not understanding, not realizing four things, that I,
 Disciples, as well as you, had to wander so long through this round of
 rebirths. And what are these four things? They are the Noble Truth
 of Suffering, the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering, the Noble
 Truth of the Extinction of Suffering, the Noble Truth of the Path that
 leads to the Extinction of Suffering.
   As long as the absolutely true knowledge and insight as regards
 these Four Noble Truths was not quite clear in me, so long was I not
 sure, whether I had won that supreme Enlightenment which is
 unsurpassed in all the world with its heavenly beings, evil spirits
 and gods, amongst all the hosts of ascetics and priests, heavenly
 beings and men. But as soon as the absolutely true knowledge and
 insight as regards these Four Noble Truths had become perfectly
 clear in me, there arose in me the assurance that I had won that
 supreme Enlightenment unsurpassed.
   And I discovered that-profound truth, so difficult to perceive,
 difficult to understand, tranquilizing and sublime, which is not to be
 gained by mere reasoning, and is visible only to the wise.
   The world, however, is given to pleasure, delighted with pleasure,
 enchanted with pleasure. Verily, such beings will hardly understand
 the law of conditionality, the Dependent Origination of every thing;
 incomprehensible to them will also be the end of all formations, the
 forsaking of every substratum of rebirth, the fading away of
 craving; detachment, extinction, Nirvana.
   Yet there are beings whose eyes are only a little covered with dust:
 they will understand the truth.
                              FIRST TRUTH
                      THE NOBLE TRUTH OF SUFFERING
 
   WHAT, now, is the Noble Truth of Suffering?
   Birth is suffering; Decay is suffering; Death is suffering;
 Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain, Grief, and Despair, are suffering; not to
 get what one desires, is suffering; in short: the Five Groups of
 Existence are suffering.
   What, now, is Birth? The birth of beings belonging to this or that
 order of beings, their being born, their conception and springing into
 existence, the manifestation of the groups of existence, the arising
 of sense activity-this is called Birth.
   And what is Decay? The decay of beings belonging to this or that
 order of beings; their getting aged, frail, grey, and wrinkled; the
 failing of their vital force, the wearing out of the senses-this is
 called Decay.
   And what is Death? The parting and vanishing of beings out of this
 or that order of beings, their destruction, disappearance, death,
 the completion of their life-period, dissolution of the groups of
 existence, the discarding of the body-this is called Death.
   And what is Sorrow? The sorrow arising through this or that loss
 or misfortune which one encounters, the worrying oneself, the state of
 being alarmed, inward sorrow, inward woe-this is called Sorrow.
   And what is Lamentation? Whatsoever, through this or that loss or
 misfortune which befalls one, is wail and lament, wailing and
 lamenting, the state of woe and lamentation this is called
 Lamentation.
   And what is Pain? The bodily pain and unpleasantness, the painful
 and unpleasant feeling produced by bodily contact-this is called Pain.
   And what is Grief? The mental pain and unpleasantness, the painful
 and unpleasant feeling produced by mental contact-this is called
 Grief.
   And what is Despair? Distress and despair arising through this or
 that loss or misfortune which one encounters, distressfulness, and
 desperation-this is called Despair.
   And what is the "suffering of not getting what one desires?" To
 beings subject to birth there comes the desire: "O that we were not
 subject to birth! O that no new birth was before us!" Subject to
 decay, disease, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and
 despair, the desire comes to them: "O that we were not subject to
 these things! O that these things were not before us!" But this cannot
 be got by mere desiring; and not to get what one desires, is
 suffering.
 
                      THE FIVE GROUPS OF EXISTENCE
 
   And what, in brief, are the Five Groups of Existence? They are
 Corporeality, Feeling, Perception,  [mental]  Formations, and
 Consciousness.
   Any corporeal phenomenon, whether one's own or external, gross or
 subtle, lofty or low, far or near, belongs to the Group of
 Corporeality; any feeling belongs to the Group of Feeling; any
 perception belongs to the Group of Perception; any mental formation
 belongs to the Group of Formations; all consciousness belongs to the
 Group of Consciousness.
   [Our so-called individual existence is in reality nothing but a mere
 process of these "bodily and mental" phenomena, which since immemorial
 times was going on before one's apparent birth, and which also after
 death will continue for immemorial periods of time. In the
 following, we shall see that these five Groups, or Khandhas-either
 taken separately, or combined-in no way constitute any real
 "Ego-entity," and that no Ego-entity exists apart from them, and hence
 that the belief in an Ego-entity is merely an illusion. Just as that
 which we designate by the name of "chariot," has no existence apart
 from axle, wheels, shaft, and so forth: or as the word "house" is
 merely a convenient designation for various materials put together
 after a certain fashion so as to enclose a portion of space, and there
 is no separate house-entity in existence:-in exactly the same way,
 that which we call a "being," or an "individual," or a "person," or by
 the name is nothing but a changing combination of physical and
 psychical phenomena, and has no real existence in itself.]
 
               THE "CORPOREALITY GROUP" OF FOUR ELEMENTS
 
   What, now, is the Group of Corporeality? It is the four primary
 elements, and Corporeality derived from them.
   And what are the four primary elements? They are the Solid
 Element, the Fluid Element, the Heating Element, the Vibrating
 Element.
   [The four elements, or-to speak more correctly-the four elementary
 qualities of matter, may be rendered in English as: Inertia, Cohesion,
 Radiation, and Vibration.
   The twenty-four corporeal phenomena which depend upon them are,
 according to the Abhidharma: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, visible
 form, sound, odor, taste, masculinity, femininity, vitality, organ
 of thinking, gesture, speech, space  (cavities of ear, nose, etc.),
 agility, elasticity, adaptability, growth, duration, decay,
 variability, change of substance.]
   1. What, now, is the Solid Element? The solid element may be one's
 own, or it may be external. And what is one's own solid element? The
 dependent properties, which on one's own person and body are hard
 and solid, as the hairs of head and body, nails, teeth, skin, flesh,
 sinews, bones, marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, diaphragm, spleen,
 lungs, stomach, bowels, mesentery, excrement, or whatever other
 dependent properties which on one's own person and body are hard and
 solid-this is called one's own solid element. Now, whether it be one's
 own solid element, or whether it be the external solid element, they
 are both only the solid element.
   And one should understand, according to reality, and true wisdom:
 "This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego."
    2. What, now, is the Fluid Element? The fluid element may be
 one's own, or it may be external. And what is one own fluid element?
 The dependent properties, which on one's own person and body are
 watery or cohesive, as bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, lymph,
 tears, semen, spit, nasal mucus, oil of the joints, urine or
 whatever other dependent properties which on one own person and body
 are watery or cohesive-this is called one's own fluid element. Now,
 whether it be one's own fluid element, or whether it be the external
 fluid element, they are both only the fluid element.
   And one should understand, according to reality, and true wisdom:
 "This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego."
   3. What, now, is the Heating Element? The heating element may be one
 own, or it may be external. And what is one's own heating element? The
 dependent properties, which on one's own person and body are heating
 and radiating, as that whereby one is heated, consumed, scorched,
 whereby that which has been eaten, drunk, chewed, or tasted, is
 fully digested; or whatever other dependent properties, which on one's
 own person and body are heating and radiating this is called one's own
 heating element. Now, whether it be one's own heating element, or
 whether it be the external heating element, they are both only the
 heating element.
   And one should understand, according to reality, and true wisdom:
 "This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego."
   4. What, now, is the Vibrating Element? The vibrating element may be
 one's own, or it may be external. And what is one's own vibrating
 element? The dependent properties, which on one's own person and
 body are mobile and gaseous, as the upward-going and downward-going
 winds; the winds of stomach and intestines; in-breathing and
 out-breathing; or whatever other dependent properties, which on
 one's own person and body are mobile and gaseous-this is called
 one's own vibrating element. Now, whether it be one's own vibrating
 element, or whether it be the external vibrating element, they are
 both only the vibrating element.
   And one should understand, according to reality, and true wisdom:
 "This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego."
   Just as one calls "hut" the circumscribed space which comes to be by
 means of wood and rushes, reeds, and clay, even so we call "body"
 the circumscribed space that comes to be by means of bones and sinews,
 flesh and skin.
 
                 DEPENDENT ORIGINATION OF CONSCIOUSNESS
 
   Now, though one's eye be intact, yet if the external forms do not
 fall within the field of vision, and no corresponding conjunction
 takes place, in that case there occurs no formation of the
 corresponding aspect of consciousness. Or, though one eye be intact,
 and the external forms fall within the field of vision, yet if no
 corresponding conjunction takes place, in that case also there
 occurs no formation of the corresponding aspect of consciousness.
 If, however, one's eye is intact, and the external forms fall within
 the field of vision, and the corresponding conjunction takes place, in
 that case there arises the corresponding aspect of consciousness.
   Hence, I say: the arising of consciousness is dependent upon
 conditions; and without these conditions, no consciousness arises. And
 upon whatsoever conditions the arising of consciousness is
 dependent, after these it is called.
   Consciousness whose arising depends on the eye and forms, is
 called "eye-consciousness."
   Consciousness whose arising depends on the ear and sound, is
 called "ear-consciousness."
   Consciousness whose arising depends on the olfactory organ and
 odors, is called "nose-consciousness."
   Consciousness whose arising depends on the tongue and taste, is
 called "tongue-consciousness."
   Consciousness whose arising depends on the body and bodily contacts,
 is called "body-consciousness."
   Consciousness whose arising depends on the mind and ideas, is called
 "mind-consciousness."
   Whatsoever there is of "corporeality" in the consciousness thus
 arisen, that belongs to the Group of Corporeality. there is of
 "feeling"-bodily ease, pain, joy, sadness, or indifferent
 feeling-belongs to the Group of Feeling. Whatsoever there is of
 "perception"-visual objects, sounds, odors, tastes, bodily
 impressions, or mind objects-belongs to the Group of Perception.
 Whatsoever there are of mental "formations" impression, volition,
 etc.-belong to the Group of mental Formations. Whatsoever there is
 of "consciousness" therein, belongs to the Group of Consciousness.
   And it is impossible that any one can explain the passing out of one
 existence, and the entering into a new existence, or the growth,
 increase, and development of consciousness, independent of
 corporeality, feeling, perception, and mental formations.
 
                 THE THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF EXISTENCE
 
   All formations are "transient"; all formations are "subject to
 suffering"; all things are "without an Ego-entity." Corporeality is
 transient, feeling is transient, perception is transient, mental
 formations are transient, consciousness is transient.
   And that which is transient, is subject to suffering; and of that
 which is transient, and subject to suffering and change, one cannot
 rightly say: "This belongs to me; this am I; this is my Ego."
   Therefore, whatever there be of corporeality, of feeling,
 perception, mental formations, or consciousness, whether one's own
 or external, whether gross or subtle, lofty or low, far or near, one
 should understand, according to reality, and true wisdom: "This does
 not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego."
   Suppose, a man who is not blind, were to behold the many bubbles
 on the Ganges as they are driving along; and he should watch them, and
 carefully examine them. After carefully examining them, they will
 appear to him empty, unreal, and unsubstantial. In exactly the same
 way, does the monk behold all the corporeal phenomena, feelings,
 perceptions, mental formations, and states of consciousness-whether
 they be of the past, or the present, or the future, far, or near.
 And he watches them, and examines them carefully; and, after carefully
 examining them, they appear to him empty, void, and without an Ego
   Whoso delights in corporeality, or feeling, or perception, or mental
 formations, or consciousness, he delights in suffering; and whoso
 delights in suffering, will not be freed from suffering. Thus I say
 
           How can you find delight and mirth,
           Where there is burning without end?
           In deepest darkness you are wrapped!
           Why do you not seek for the light?
 
           Look at this puppet here, well rigged,
           A heap of many sores, piled up,
           Diseased, and full of greediness,
           Unstable, and impermanent!
 
           Devoured by old age is this frame,
           A prey of sickness, weak and frail;
           To pieces breaks this putrid body,
           All life must truly end in death.
 
                           THE THREE WARNINGS
 
   Did you never see in the world a man, or a woman, eighty, ninety, or
 a hundred years old, frail, crooked as a gable roof, bent down,
 resting on crutches, with tottering steps, infirm, youth long since
 fled, with broken teeth, grey and scanty hair, or bald-headed,
 wrinkled, with blotched limbs? And did the thought never come to you
 that also you are subject to decay, that also you cannot escape it?
   Did you never see in the world a man, or a woman, who being sick,
 afflicted, and grievously ill, and wallowing in his own filth, was
 lifted up by some people, and put to bed by others? And did the
 thought never come to you that also you are subject to disease, that
 also you cannot escape it?
   Did you never see in the world the corpse of a man, or a woman, one,
 or two, or three days after death, swollen up, blue-black in color,
 and full of corruption? And did the thought never come to you that
 also you are subject to death, that also you cannot escape it?
 
                    SAMSARA, THE WHEEL OF EXISTENCE
 
   Inconceivable is the beginning of this Samsara; not to be discovered
 is any first beginning of beings, who, obstructed by ignorance, and
 ensnared by craving, are hurrying and hastening through this round
 of rebirths.
   [Samsara-the Wheel of Existence, lit., the "Perpetual
 Wandering"-is the name by which is designated the sea of life ever
 restlessly heaving up and down, the symbol of this continuous
 process of ever again and again being born, growing old, suffering,
 and dying. More precisely Put: Samsara is the unbroken chain of the
 fivefold Khandha-combinations, which, constantly changing from
 moment to moment, follow continuously one upon the other through
 inconceivable periods of time. Of this Samsara, a single lifetime
 constitutes only a vanishingly tiny fraction; hence, to be able to
 comprehend the first noble truth, one must let one's gaze rest upon
 the Samsara, upon this frightful chain of rebirths, and not merely
 upon one single lifetime, which, of course, may be sometimes not
 very painful.]
   Which do you think is the more: the flood of tears, which weeping
 and wailing you have shed upon this long way-hurrying and hastening
 through this round of rebirths, united with the undesired, separated
 from the desired this, or the waters of the four oceans?
   Long time have you suffered the death of father and mother, of sons,
 daughters, brothers, and sisters. And whilst you were thus
 suffering, you have, verily, shed more tears upon this long way than
 there is water in the four oceans.
   Which do you think is the more: the streams of blood that, through
 your being beheaded, have flowed upon this long way, or the waters
 in the four oceans?
   Long time have you been caught as dacoits, or highwaymen, or
 adulterers; and, through your being beheaded, verily, more blood has
 flowed upon this long way than there is water in the four oceans.
   But how is this possible?
   Inconceivable is the beginning of this Samsara; not to be discovered
 is any first beginning of beings, who, obstructed by ignorance, and
 ensnared by craving, are hurrying and hastening through this round
 of rebirths.
   And thus have you long time undergone suffering, undergone
 torment, undergone misfortune, and filled the graveyards full; verily,
 long enough to be dissatisfied with all the forms of existence, long
 enough to turn away, and free yourselves from them all.
 
                              SECOND TRUTH
               THE NOBLE TRUTH OF THE ORIGIN OF SUFFERING
 
   WHAT, now, is the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering? It is that
 craving which gives rise to fresh rebirth, and, bound up with pleasure
 and lust, now here, now there, finds ever fresh delight.
   [In the absolute sense, it is no real being, no self-determined,
 unchangeable, Ego-entity that is reborn. Moreover, there is nothing
 that remains the same even for two consecutive moments; for the Five
 Khandhas, or Groups of Existence, are in a state of perpetual
 change, of continual dissolution and renewal. They die every moment,
 and every moment new ones are born. Hence it follows that there is
 no such thing as a real existence, or "being"  (Latin esse),  but only
 as it were an endless process, a continuous change, a "becoming,"
 consisting in a "producing," and in a "being produced"; in a
 "process of action," and in a "process of reaction," or "rebirth."
   This process of perpetual "producing" and "being produced" may
 best be compared with an ocean wave. In the case of a wave, there is
 not the slightest quantity of water traveling over the surface of
 the sea. But the wave structure, that hastens over the surface of
 the water, creating the appearance of one and the same mass of
 water, is, in reality, nothing but the continuous rising and falling
 of continuous, but quite different, masses of water, produced by the
 transmission of force generated by the wind. Even so, the Buddha did
 not teach that Ego-entities hasten through the ocean of rebirth, but
 merely life-waves, which, according to their nature and activities
 (good, or evil),  manifest themselves here as men, there as animals,
 and elsewhere as invisible beings.]
 
                         THE THREEFOLD CRAVING
 
   There is the "Sensual Craving," the "Craving for
 Eternal-Annihilation." Existence," the "Craving for
 Self-Annihilation."
   [The "Craving for Eternal Existence," according to the
 Visuddhi-Magga, is intimately connected with the so-called
 Eternity-Belief," i.e., the belief in an absolute, eternal, Ego-entity
 persisting independently of our body.
   The Craving for Self-Annihilation is the outcome of the so-called
 "Annihilation-Belief," the delusive materialistic notion of an Ego
 which is annihilated at death, and which does not stand in any
 causal relation with the time before birth or after death.]
   But, where does this craving arise and take root? Wherever in the
 world there are delightful and pleasurable things, there this
 craving arises and takes root. Eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind,
 are delightful and pleasurable: there this craving arises and takes
 root.
   Visual objects, sounds, smells, tastes, bodily impressions, and
 mind-objects, are delightful and pleasurable: there this craving
 arises and takes root.
   Consciousness, sense impression, feeling born of sense impression,
 perception, will, craving, thinking, and reflecting, are delightful
 and pleasurable: there this craving arises and takes root.
   If, namely, when perceiving a visual object, a sound, odor, taste,
 bodily impression, or a mind object, the object is pleasant, one is
 attracted; and if unpleasant, one is repelled.
   Thus, whatever kind of "Feeling" one experiences, pleasant,
 unpleasant, or indifferent-one approves of, and cherishes the feeling,
 and clings to it; and while doing so, lust springs up; but lust for
 feelings, means Clinging; and on Clinging, depends the "Process of
 Becoming"; on the Process of Becoming  (Karma-process),  depends
 (future)  "Birth"; and dependent on Birth, are Decay and Death,
 Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain, Grief, and Despair. Thus arises this
 whole mass of suffering.
   This is called the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering.
 
                    HEAPING UP OF PRESENT SUFFERING
 
   Verily, due to sensuous craving, conditioned through sensuous
 craving, impelled by sensuous craving, entirely moved by sensuous
 craving, kings fight with kings, princes with princes, priests with
 priests, citizens with citizens; the mother quarrels with the son, the
 son with the mother, the father with the son, the son with the father;
 brother quarrels with brother, brother with sister, sister with
 brother, friend with friend. Thus, given to dissension, quarreling and
 fighting, they fall upon one another with fists, sticks, or weapons.
 And thereby they suffer death or deadly pain.
   And further, due to sensuous craving, conditioned through sensuous
 craving, impelled by sensuous craving, entirely moved by sensuous
 craving, people break into houses, rob, plunder, pillage whole houses,
 commit highway robbery, seduce the wives of others. Then, the rulers
 have such people caught, and inflict on them various forms of
 punishment. And thereby they incur death or deadly pain. Now, this
 is the misery of sensuous craving, the heaping up of suffering in this
 present life, due to sensuous craving, conditioned through sensuous
 craving, caused by sensuous craving, entirely dependent on sensuous
 craving.
 
                     HEAPING UP OF FUTURE SUFFERING
 
   And further, people take the evil way in deeds, the evil way in
 words, the evil way in thoughts; and by taking the evil way in
 deeds, words, and thoughts, at the dissolution of the body, after
 death, they fall into a downward state of existence, a state of
 suffering, into perdition, and the abyss of hell. But, this is the
 misery of sensuous craving, the heaping up of suffering in the
 future life, due to sensuous craving, conditioned through sensuous
 craving, caused by sensuous craving, entirely dependent on sensuous
 craving.
 
           Not in the air, nor ocean-midst,
           Nor hidden in the mountain clefts,
           Nowhere is found a place on earth,
           Where man is freed from evil deeds.
 
                     INHERITANCE OF DEEDS  (KARMA)
 
   For, owners of their deeds  (karma)  are the beings, heirs of
 their deeds; their deeds are the womb from which they sprang; with
 their deeds they are bound up; their deeds are their refuge.
 Whatever deeds they do-good or evil-of such they will be the heirs.
   And wherever the beings spring into existence, there their deeds
 will ripen; and wherever their deeds ripen, there they will earn the
 fruits of those deeds, be it in this life, or be it in the next
 life, or be it in any other future life.
   There will come a time, when the mighty ocean will dry up, vanish,
 and be no more. There will come a time, when the mighty earth will
 be devoured by fire, perish, and be no more. But, yet there will be no
 end to the suffering of beings, who, obstructed by ignorance, and
 ensnared by craving, are hurrying and hastening through this round
 of rebirths.
 
                              THIRD TRUTH
             THE NOBLE TRUTH OF THE EXTINCTION OF SUFFERING
 
   WHAT, now, is the Noble Truth of the Extinction of Suffering? It
 is the complete fading away and extinction of this craving, its
 forsaking and giving up, the liberation and detachment from it.
   But where may this craving vanish, where may it be extinguished?
 Wherever in the world there are delightful and pleasurable things,
 there this craving may vanish, there it may be extinguished.
   Be it in the past, present, or future, whosoever of the monks or
 priests regards the delightful and pleasurable things in the world
 as "impermanent," "miserable," and "without an Ego," as a disease
 and cancer; it is he who overcomes the craving.
   And released from Sensual Craving, released from the Craving for
 Existence, he does not return, does not enter again into existence.
 
                 DEPENDENT EXTINCTION OF ALL PHENOMENA
 
   For, through the total fading away and extinction of Craving,
 Clinging is extinguished; through the extinction of clinging, the
 Process of Becoming is extinguished; through the extinction of the
 (karmic)  process of becoming, Rebirth is extinguished; and through
 the extinction of rebirth, Decay and Death, Sorrow, Lamentation,
 Suffering, Grief, and Despair, are extinguished. Thus comes about
 the extinction of this whole mass of suffering.
   Hence, the annihilation, cessation, and overcoming of
 corporeality, feeling, perception, mental formations, and
 consciousness, this is the extinction of suffering, the end of
 disease, the overcoming of old age and death.
   [The undulatory motion, which we call wave-which in the spectator
 creates the illusion of a single mass of water moving over the surface
 of the lake-is produced and fed by the wind, and maintained by the
 stored-up energies. After the wind has ceased, and no fresh wind again
 whips up the water, the stored-up energies will gradually be consumed,
 and the whole undulatory motion come to an end. Similarly, if fire
 does not get new fuel, it will become extinct. just so, this
 Five-Khandha-process-which, in the ignorant worldling, creates the
 illusion of an Ego-entity-is produced and fed by the life-affirming
 craving, and maintained for some time by means of the stored-up
 life-energies. Now, after the fuel, i.e., the craving and clinging
 to life, has ceased, and no new craving impels again this
 Five-Khandha-process, life will continue as long as there are still
 life-energies stored up, but at their destruction at death, the
 Five-Khandha-process will reach final extinction.
   Thus, nirvana or "Extinction"  (Sanskrit: to cease blowing, to
 become extinct),  may be considered under two aspects:
   1. "Extinction of Impurities," reached at the attainment of
 Arahatship, or Holiness, which takes place during the life-time.
   2. "Extinction of the Five-Khandha-process," which takes place at
 the death of the Arahat.]
 
                                NIRVANA
 
   This, truly, is the Peace, this is the Highest, namely the end of
 all formations, the forsaking of every substratum of rebirth, the
 fading away of craving: detachment, extinction-Nirvana.
   Enraptured with lust, enraged with anger, blinded by delusion,
 overwhelmed, with mind ensnared, man aims at his own ruin, at
 others' ruin, at the ruin of both parties, and he experiences mental
 pain and grief. But, if lust, anger, and delusion are given up, man
 aims neither at his own ruin, nor at others' ruin, nor at the ruin
 of both parties, and he experiences no mental pain and grief. Thus
 is Nirvana immediate, visible in this life, inviting, attractive,
 and comprehensible to the wise.
   The extinction of greed, the extinction of anger, the extinction
 of delusion: this, indeed, is called Nirvana.
 
                        THE ARAHAT, OR HOLY ONE
 
   And for a disciple thus freed, in whose heart dwells peace, there is
 nothing to be added to what has been done, and naught more remains for
 him to do. Just as a rock of one solid mass remains unshaken by the
 wind, even so, neither forms, nor sounds, nor odors, nor tastes, nor
 contacts of any kind, neither the desired, nor the undesired, can
 cause such an one to waver. Steadfast is his mind, gained is
 deliverance.
   And he who has considered all the contrasts on this earth, and is no
 more disturbed by anything whatever in the world, the Peaceful One,
 freed from rage, from sorrow, and from longing, he has passed beyond
 birth and decay.
 
                             THE IMMUTABLE
 
   There is a realm, where there is neither the solid, nor the fluid,
 neither heat, nor motion, neither this world, nor any other world,
 neither sun, nor moon. This I call neither arising, nor passing
 away, neither standing still nor being born, nor dying. There is
 neither foothold, nor development, nor any basis. This is the end of
 suffering.
   There is an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed. If there were
 not this Unborn, this Unoriginated, this Uncreated, this Unformed,
 escape from the world of the born, the originated, the created, the
 formed, would not be possible.
   But since there is an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed,
 therefore is escape possible from the world of the born, the
 originated, the created, the formed.
 
                              FOURTH TRUTH
                       THE NOBLE TRUTH OF THE PATH
                THAT LEADS TO THE EXTINCTION OF SUFFERING
 
                  THE TWO EXTREMES AND THE MIDDLE PATH
 
   TO GIVE oneself up to indulgence in sensual pleasure, the base,
 common, vulgar, unholy, unprofitable; and also to give oneself up to
 self-mortification, the painful, unholy, unprofitable: both these
 two extremes the Perfect One has avoided, and found out the Middle
 Path, which makes one both to see and to know, which leads to peace,
 to discernment, to enlightenment, to Nirvana.
 
                           THE EIGHTFOLD PATH
 
   It is the Noble Eightfold Path, the way that leads to the extinction
 of suffering, namely:
   1. Right Understanding, 2. Right Mindedness, which together are
 Wisdom.
   3. Right Speech, 4. Right Action, 5. Right Living, which together
 are Morality.
   6. Right Effort, 7. Right Attentiveness, 8. Right Concentration,
 which together are Concentration.
   This is the Middle Path which the Perfect One has found out, which
 makes one both to see and to know, which leads to peace, to
 discernment, to enlightenment, to Nirvana.
   Free from pain and torture is this path, free from groaning and
 suffering; it is the perfect path.
   Truly, like this path there is no other path to the purity of
 insight. If you follow this path, you will put an end to suffering.
   But each one has to struggle for himself, the Perfect Ones have only
 pointed out the way.
   Give ear then, for the Immortal is found. I reveal, I set forth
 the Truth. As I reveal it to you, so act! And that supreme goal of the
 holy life, for the sake of which, sons of good families rightly go
 forth from home to the homeless state: this you will, in no long time,
 in this very life, make known to yourself, realize, and make your own.
 
                           THE EIGHTFOLD PATH
                               FIRST STEP
                           RIGHT UNDERSTANDING
 
   WHAT, now, is Right Understanding? It is understanding the Four
 Truths. To understand suffering; to understand the origin of
 suffering; to understand the extinction of suffering; to understand
 the path that leads to the extinction of suffering: This is called
 Right Understanding
   Or, when the noble disciple understands what is karmically
 wholesome, and the root of wholesome karma; what is karmically
 unwholesome, and the root of unwholesome karma, then he has Right
 Understanding.
   ["Karmically unwholesome" is every volitional act of body, speech,
 or mind which is rooted in greed, hatred, or delusion, and produces
 evil and painful results in this or any future form of existence.]
   What, now, is "karmically unwholesome?"
   In Bodily Action it is destruction of living beings; stealing; and
 unlawful sexual intercourse. In Verbal Action it is lying;
 tale-bearing; harsh language; and frivolous talk. In Mental Action
 it is covetousness; ill-will; and wrong views.
   And what is the root of unwholesome karma? Greed is a root of
 unwholesome karma; Anger is a root of unwholesome karma; Delusion is a
 root of unwholesome karma.
   [The state of greed, as well as that of anger, is always accompanied
 by delusion; and delusion, ignorance, is the primary root of all
 evil.]
   Therefore, I say, these demeritorious actions are of three kinds:
 either due to greed, or due to anger, or due to delusion.
   What, now, is "karmically wholesome?"
   In Bodily Action it is to abstain from killing; to abstain from
 stealing; and to abstain from unlawful sexual intercourse.
   In Verbal Action it is to abstain from lying; to abstain from
 tale-bearing; to abstain from harsh language; and to abstain from
 frivolous talk.
   In Mental Action it is absence of covetousness; absence of ill-will;
 and right understanding.
   And what is the root of wholesome karma? Absence of greed
 (unselfishness)  is a root of wholesome karma; absence of anger
 (benevolence)  is a root of wholesome karma; absence of delusion
 (wisdom)  is a root of wholesome karma.
   Or, when one understands that corporeality, feeling, perception,
 mental formation, and consciousness, are transient  [subject to
 suffering, and without an Ego],  also in that case one possesses Right
 Understanding.
 
                         UNPROFITABLE QUESTIONS
 
   Should anyone say that he does not wish to lead the holy life
 under the Blessed One, unless the Blessed One first tells him, whether
 the world is eternal or temporal, finite or infinite; whether the life
 principle is identical with the body, or something different;
 whether the Perfect One continues after death, and so on such a man
 would die, ere the Perfect One could tell him all this.
   It is as if a man were pierced by a poisoned arrow, and his friends,
 companions, or near relations, should send for a surgeon; but that man
 should say: "I will not have this arrow pulled out, until I know who
 the man is that has wounded me: whether he is a noble, a priest, a
 citizen, or a servant"; or: "what his name is, and to what family he
 belongs"; or: "whether he is tall, or short, or of medium height."
 Verily, such a man would die, ere he could adequately learn all this.
   Therefore, the man who seeks his own welfare, should pull out this
 arrow-this arrow of lamentation, pain, and sorrow.
   For, whether the theory exists, or whether it does not exist, that
 the world is eternal, or temporal, or finite, or infinite-certainly,
 there is birth, there is decay, there is death, sorrow, lamentation,
 pain, grief, and despair, the extinction of which, attainable even
 in this present life, I make known unto you.
   There is, for instance, an unlearned worldling, void of regard for
 holy men, ignorant of the teaching of holy men, untrained in the noble
 doctrine. And his heart is possessed and overcome by Self-Illusion, by
 Skepticism, by attachment to mere Rule and Ritual, by Sensual Lust,
 and by will; and how to free himself from these things, he does not
 really know.
   [Self-Illusion may reveal itself as "Eternalism" or Eternity-belief"
 i.e., the belief that one's Ego is existing independently of the
 material body, and continuing even after the dissolution of the
 latter; or as "Annihilationism," or "Annihilation-belief" i.e., the
 materialistic belief that this present life constitutes the Ego, and
 hence that it is annihilated at the death of the material body.]
   Not knowing what is worthy of consideration, and what is unworthy of
 consideration, he considers the unworthy, and not the worthy.
   And unwisely he considers thus: "Have I been in the past? Or. have I
 not been in the past? What have I been in the past? How have I been in
 the past? From what state into what state did I change in the
 past?-Shall I be in the future? Or, shall I not be in the future? What
 shall I be in the future? How shall I be in the future? From what
 state into what state shall I change in the future?" And the present
 also fills him with doubt: "Am I? Or, am I not? What am I? How am I?
 This being, whence has it come? Whither will it go?"
   And with such unwise considerations, he falls into one or other of
 the six views, and it becomes his conviction and firm belief: "I
 have an Ego"; or: "I have no Ego"; or: "With the Ego I perceive the
 Ego"; or: "With that which is no Ego, I perceive the Ego"; or: "With
 the Ego I perceive that which is no Ego. Or, he falls into the
 following view: "This my Ego, which can think and feel, and which, now
 here, now there, experiences the fruit of good and evil deeds; this my
 Ego is permanent, stable, eternal, not subject to change, and will
 thus eternally remain the same."
   If there really existed the Ego, there would be also something which
 belonged to the Ego. As, however, in truth and reality, neither the
 Ego, nor anything belonging to the Ego, can be found, is it not
 therefore really an utter fool's doctrine to say: "This is the
 world, this am I; after death, I shall be permanent, persisting, and
 eternal?"
   These are called mere views, a thicket of views, a puppet show of
 views, a toil of views, a snare of views; and ensnared in the fetter
 of views, the ignorant worldling will not be freed from rebirth,
 from decay, and from death, from sorrow, pain, grief, and despair;
 he will not be freed, I say, from suffering.
 
                    THE SOTAPAN, OR "STREAM-ENTERER"
 
   The learned and noble disciple, however, who has regard for holy
 men, knows the teaching of holy men, is well trained in the noble
 doctrine, he understands what is worthy of consideration, and what
 is unworthy. And knowing this, he considers the worthy, and not the
 unworthy. What suffering is, he wisely considers. What the origin of
 suffering is, he wisely considers; what the extinction of suffering
 is, he wisely considers; what the path is that leads to the extinction
 of suffering, he wisely considers.
   And by thus considering, three fetters vanish, namely:
 Self-illusion, Skepticism, and Attachment to mere Rule and Ritual.
   But those disciples in whom these three fetters have vanished have
 "entered the Stream," have forever escaped the states of woe, and
 are assured of final enlightenment.
 
           More than any earthly power,
           More than all the joys of heaven,
           More than rule o'er all the world,
           Is the Entrance to the Stream.
 
   And, verily, those who are filled with unshaken faith in me, all
 those have entered the stream.
   There are ten "Fetters" by which beings are bound to the wheel of
 existence. They are: Self-Illusion, Skepticism, Attachment to mere
 Rule and Ritual, Sensual Lust, Ill-will, Craving for the World of pure
 Form, Craving for the Formless World, Conceit, Restlessness,
 Ignorance.
   A Sotapan, or "Stream-Enterer" i.e. "one who has entered the
 stream leading to Nirvana," is free from the first three fetters.
   A Sakadagamin, or "Once-Returned"-namely to this sensuous sphere-has
 overcome the 4th and 5th fetters in their grosser form. An Anagamin,
 or "Non-Returner," is wholly freed from the first five fetters,
 which bind to rebirth in the sensuous sphere; after death, whilst
 living in the sphere of pure form, he will reach the goal. An
 Arahat, or perfectly "Holy One," is freed from all fetters.]
 
                         THE TWO UNDERSTANDINGS
 
   Therefore, I say, Right Understanding is of two kinds:
   1. The view that alms and offerings are not useless; that there is
 fruit and result, both of good and bad actions; that there are such
 things as this life, and the next life; that father and mother as
 spontaneously born beings  (in the heavenly worlds)  are no mere
 words; that there are monks and priests who are spotless and
 perfect, who can explain this life and the next life, which they
 themselves have understood: this is called the "Mundane Right
 Understanding," which yields worldly fruits, and brings good results.
   2. But whatsoever there is of wisdom, of penetration, of right
 understanding, conjoined with the Path-the mind being turned away from
 the world, and conjoined with the path, the holy path being turned
 away from the world, and conjoined with the path, the holy path
 being pursued;-this is called the "Ultramundane Right
 Understanding," which is not of the world, but is ultramundane, and
 conjoined with the Path.
   [Thus, there are two kinds of the Eightfold Path: the "mundane,"
 practiced by the "worldling"; and the "ultra-mundane," practiced by
 the "Noble Ones."]
   Now, in understanding wrong understanding as wrong, and right
 understanding as right, one practices Right Understanding  [1st step];
  and in making efforts to overcome wrong understanding, and to
 arouse right understanding, one practices. Right Effort  [6th step];
  and in overcoming wrong understanding with attentive mind, and
 dwelling with attentive mind in the possession of right understanding,
 one practices Right-Attentiveness  [7th step].  Hence, there are three
 things that accompany and follow upon right understanding, namely:
 right understanding, right effort, and right attentiveness.
 
                          COMPLETE DELIVERANCE
 
   Now, if any one should put the question, whether I admit any view at
 all, he should be answered thus:
   The Perfect One is free from any theory, for the Perfect One has
 understood what corporeality is, and how it arises, and passes away.
 He has understood what feeling is, and how it arises, and passes away.
 He has understood what perception is, and how it arises, and passes
 away. He has understood what the mental formations are, and how they
 arise, and pass away. He has understood what consciousness is, and how
 it arises, and passes away. Therefore, I say, the Perfect One has
 won complete deliverance through the extinction, fading-away,
 disappearance, rejection, and getting rid of all opinions and
 conjectures, of all inclination to the vainglory of "I" and "mine."
   Whether Perfect Ones  [Buddhas]  appear in the world or whether
 Perfect Ones do not appear in the world, it still remains a firm
 condition, an immutable fact and fixed law: that all formations are
 impermanent" that all formations are "subject to suffering"; that
 everything is "without an Ego."
   [The word sankhara  (formations)  comprises all things which have
 a beginning and an end, the so-called created, or "formed" things,
 i.e., all possible physical and mental constituents of existence.]
   A corporeal phenomenon, a feeling, a perception, a mental formation,
 a consciousness, that is permanent and persistent, eternal and not
 subject to change: such a thing the wise men in this world do not
 recognize; and I also say, there is no such thing.
   And it is impossible that a being possessed of Right Understanding
 should regard anything as the Ego.
   Now, if someone should say that Feeling is his Ego, he should be
 answered thus: "There are three kinds of feeling: pleasurable,
 painful, and indifferent feeling. Which of these three feelings,
 now, do you consider your Ego?" At the moment namely of experiencing
 one of these feelings one does not experience the other two. These
 three kinds of feelings are impermanent, of dependent origin, are
 subject to decay and dissolution, to fading-away and extinction.
 Whosoever, in experiencing one of these feelings, thinks that this
 is his Ego, will, after the extinction of that feeling, admit that his
 Ego has become dissolved. And thus he will consider his Ego already in
 this present life as impermanent, mixed up with pleasure and pain,
 subject to rising and passing away.
   If any one should say that Feeling is not his Ego, and that his
 Ego is inaccessible to feeling, he should be asked thus: "Now, where
 there is no feeling, is it there possible to say: 'This am I?'"
   Or, someone might say: "Feeling, indeed, is not my Ego, but it
 also is untrue that my Ego is inaccessible to feeling; for it is my
 Ego that feels, for my Ego has the faculty of feeling." Such a one
 should be answered thus: "Suppose, feeling should become altogether
 totally extinguished; now, if there, after the extinction of
 feeling, no feeling whatever exists, it is then possible to say: 'This
 am I?'"
   To say that the mind, or the mind-objects, or the
 mind-consciousness, constitute the Ego; such an assertion is
 unfounded. For an arising and a passing away is seen there; and seeing
 this, one should come to the conclusion that one's Ego arises and
 passes away.
   It would be better for the unlearned worldling to regard this
 body, built up of the four elements, as his Ego, rather than the mind.
 For it is evident that this body may last for a year, for two years,
 for three years, four, five, or ten years, or even a hundred years and
 more; but that which is called thought, or mind, or consciousness,
 is continuously, during day and night, arising as one thing, and
 passing away as another thing.
   Therefore, whatsoever there is of corporeality, of feeling, of
 perception, of mental formations, of consciousness, whether one's
 own or external, gross or subtle, lofty or low, far or near; there one
 should understand according to reality and true wisdom: "This does not
 belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego."
   [To show the Egolessness, utter emptiness of existence,
 Visuddhi-Magga XVI quotes the following verse:
 
           Mere suffering exists, no sufferer is found;
           The deed is, but no doer of the deed is there;
           Nirvana is, but not the man that enters it;
           The Path is, but no traveler on it is seen.]
 
                       PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE
 
   If, now, any one should ask: "Have you been in the past, and is it
 untrue that you have not been? Will you be in the future, and is it
 untrue that you will not be? Are you, and is it untrue that you are
 not?"-you may say that you have been in the past, and it is untrue
 that you have not been; that you will be in the future, and it is
 untrue that you will not be; that you are, and it is untrue that you
 are not.
   In the past only the past existence was real, but unreal the
 future and present existence. In the future only the future
 existence will be real, but unreal the past and present existence. Now
 only the present existence is real, but unreal the past and future
 existence.
   Verily, he who perceives the Dependent Origination, perceives the
 truth and he who perceives the truth, perceives the dependent
 origination. For, just as from the cow comes milk, from milk curds,
 from curds butter, from butter ghee, from ghee the scum of ghee; and
 when it is milk, it is not counted as curds, or butter, or ghee, or
 scum of ghee, but only as milk; and when it is curds, it is only
 counted as curds-just so was my past existence at that time real,
 but unreal the future and present existence; and my future existence
 will be at one time real, but unreal the past and present existence;
 and my present existence is now real, but unreal the past and future
 existence. All these are merely popular designations and
 expressions, mere conventional terms of speaking, mere popular
 notions. The Perfect One, indeed, makes use of these, without,
 however, clinging to them.
   Thus, he who does not understand corporeality, feeling,
 perception, mental formations and consciousness according to reality
  [i.e., as void of a personality, or Ego],  and not their arising,
 their extinction, and the way to their extinction, he is liable to
 believe, either that the Perfect One continues after death, or that he
 does not continue after death, and so forth.
   Verily, if one holds the view that the vital principle  [Ego]  is
 identical with this body, in that case a holy life is not possible;
 or, if one holds the view that the vital principle is something
 quite different from the body, in that case also a holy life is not
 possible. Both these two Extremes the Perfect One has avoided, and
 shown the Middle Doctrine, saying:
 
                         DEPENDENT ORIGINATION
 
   On Delusion depend the Karma-Formations. On the karma-formations
 depends Consciousness  [starting with rebirth-consciousness in the
 womb of the mother].- On consciousness depends the Mental and Physical
 Existence.-On the mental and physical existence depend the Six
 Sense-Organs.-On the six sense-organs depends the Sensory
 Impression.-On the sensory impression depends Feeling.-On feeling
 depends; Craving.-On craving depends Clinging. On clinging depends the
 Process of Becoming.-On the process of becoming  [here: karmaprocess]
 depends Rebirth.-On rebirth depend Decay and Death, sorrow,
 lamentation, pain, grief and despair. Thus arises this whole mass of
 suffering. This is called the noble truth of the origin of suffering.
   In whom, however, Delusion has disappeared and wisdom arisen, such a
 disciple heaps up neither meritorious, nor demeritorious, nor
 imperturbable Karma-formations.
   Thus, through the entire fading away and extinction of this
 Delusion, the Karma-Formations are extinguished. Through the
 extinction of the Karma-formations, Consciousness  [rebirth]  is
 extinguished. Through the extinction of consciousness, the Mental
 and Physical Existence is extinguished. Through the extinction of
 the mental and physical existence, the six Sense-Organs are
 extinguished. Through the extinction of the six sense-organs, the
 Sensory Impression is extinguished. Through the extinction of the
 sensory impression, Feeling is extinguished. Through the extinction of
 feeling, Craving is extinguished. Through the extinction of craving,
 Clinging is extinguished. Through the extinction of clinging, the
 Process of Becoming is extinguished. Through the extinction of the
 process of becoming, Rebirth is extinguished. Through the extinction
 of rebirth, Decay and Death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and
 despair are extinguished. Thus takes place the extinction of this
 whole mass of suffering. This is called the Noble Truth of the
 Extinction of Suffering.
 
                 KARMA:  REBIRTH - PRODUCING AND BARREN
 
   Verily, because beings, obstructed by Delusion, and ensnared by
 Craving, now here now there seek ever fresh delight, therefore such
 action comes to ever fresh Rebirth.
   And the action that is done out of greed, anger and delusion, that
 springs from them, has its source and origin there: this action ripens
 wherever one is reborn; and wherever this action ripens, there one
 experiences the fruits of this action, be it in this life, or the next
 life, or in some future life.
   However, through the fading away of delusion through the arising
 of wisdom, through the extinction of craving, no future rebirth
 takes place again
   For the actions, which are not done out of greed, anger and
 delusion, which have not sprung from them, which have not their source
 and origin there-such actions are, through the absence of greed, anger
 and delusion, abandoned, rooted out, like a palm-tree torn out of
 the soil, destroyed, and not liable to spring up again.
   In this respect one may rightly say of me: that I teach
 annihilation, that I propound my doctrine for the purpose of
 annihilation, and that I herein train my disciples; for, certainly,
 I do teach annihilation-the annihilation, namely,